United Nations – Human Settlements Program. (UN-Habitat). UN-Habitat Annual Report-2022 Edition. Available from: https://unhabitat.org/annual-report-2022 (2022).
United Nations. (UN). UN World Water Development Report 2024: Partnerships and Cooperation for Water. Available from: https://www.unwater.org/publications/un-world-water-development-report-2024 (2024).
Arfelli, F., Ciacci, L., Vassura, I. & Passarini, F. Nexus analysis and life cycle assessment of regional water supply systems: A case study from Italy. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 185, 106446 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, J. et al. China’s water–energy nexus: Greenhouse-gas emissions from groundwater use for agriculture. Environ. Res. Lett. 7(1), 014035 (2012).
Google Scholar
Parkinson, S. Guiding urban water management towards 1.5 °C. npj Clean Water 4(1), 34 (2021).
Google Scholar
Chen, S., Tan, Y. & Liu, Z. Direct and embodied energy-water-carbon nexus at an inter-regional scale. Appl. Energy 251, 113401 (2019).
Google Scholar
Christoff, P. The promissory note: COP 21 and the Paris climate agreement. In The New Power Politics of Global Climate Governance 21–43 (Routledge, 2018).
Wu, X. et al. Decoupling of SDGs followed by re-coupling as sustainable development progresses. Nat. Sustain. 5(5), 452–459 (2022).
Google Scholar
Mallapaty, S. How China could be carbon neutral by mid-century. Nature 586(7830), 482–483 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zuo, Q., Zhang, Z., Ma, J., Zhao, C. & Qin, X. Carbon dioxide emission equivalent analysis of water resource behaviors: Determination and application of CEEA function table. Water 15(3), 431 (2023).
Google Scholar
Tan, S. & Yao, L. Managing and optimizing urban water supply system for sustainable development: Perspectives from water-energy-carbon nexus. Sustain. Product. Consum. 37, 39–52 (2023).
Google Scholar
Chen, J., Du, M. & Huang, C. Efficiency and its influencing factors of urban water sector in China and major OECD countries. J. Clean. Prod. 373, 133885 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhang, Q. et al. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with urban water infrastructure: What we have learnt from China’s practice. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water 8(4), e1529 (2021).
Google Scholar
Smith, K., Liu, S. & Chang, T. Contribution of urban water supply to greenhouse gas emissions in China. J. Ind. Ecol. 20(4), 792–802 (2016).
Google Scholar
Zhang, L. & Chen, S. Carbon peaks of water systems in Chinese cities under varying water demand dynamics and energy transition pathways. J. Clean. Prod. 379, 134695 (2022).
Google Scholar
Yang, M. et al. Greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants in China: Historical emissions and future mitigation potentials. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 190, 106794 (2023).
Google Scholar
Dong, H., Geng, Y., Xi, F. & Fujita, T. Carbon footprint evaluation at industrial park level: A hybrid life cycle assessment approach. Energy Policy 57, 298–307 (2013).
Google Scholar
Wiedmann, T., Minx, J., Barrett, J. & Wackernagel, M. Allocating ecological footprints to final consumption categories with input–output analysis. Ecol. Econ. 56(1), 28–48 (2006).
Google Scholar
Wakeel, M., Chen, B., Hayat, T., Alsaedi, A. & Ahmad, B. Energy consumption for water use cycles in different countries: A review. Appl. Energy 178, 868–885 (2016).
Google Scholar
Sambito, M. & Freni, G. LCA methodology for the quantification of the carbon footprint of the integrated urban water system. Water 9(6), 395 (2017).
Google Scholar
Fang, A. J., Newell, J. P. & Cousins, J. J. The energy and emissions footprint of water supply for Southern California. Environ. Res. Lett. 10(11), 114002 (2015).
Google Scholar
Heihsel, M., Lenzen, M., Malik, A. & Geschke, A. The carbon footprint of desalination: An input-output analysis of seawater reverse osmosis desalination in Australia for 2005–2015. Desalination 454, 71–81 (2019).
Google Scholar
Valek, A. M., Sušnik, J. & Grafakos, S. Quantification of the urban water-energy nexus in México City, México, with an assessment of water-system related carbon emissions. Sci. Total Environ. 590, 258–268 (2017).
Google Scholar
Driscoll, A. W., Conant, R. T., Marston, L. T., Choi, E. & Mueller, N. D. Greenhouse gas emissions from US irrigation pumping and implications for climate-smart irrigation policy. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 675 (2024).
Google Scholar
Maziotis, A. & Molinos-Senante, M. The impact of model specification and environmental variables on measuring the overall technical efficiency of water and sewerage services: Evidence from Chile. Struct. Change Econ. Dyn. 61, 191–198 (2022).
Google Scholar
Ananda, J. Productivity implications of the water-energy-emissions nexus: An empirical analysis of the drinking water and wastewater sector. J. Clean. Prod. 196, 1097–1105 (2018).
Google Scholar
Ma, J., Yin, Z. & Cai, J. Efficiency of urban water supply under carbon emission constraints in China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 85, 104040 (2022).
Google Scholar
Goh, K. H. & See, K. F. Twenty years of water utility benchmarking: A bibliometric analysis of emerging interest in water research and collaboration. J. Clean. Prod. 284, 124711 (2021).
Google Scholar
Bian, H. & Meng, M. Carbon emission reduction potential and reduction strategy of China’s manufacturing industry. J. Clean. Prod. 423, 138718 (2023).
Google Scholar
Wei, C., Ni, J. & Du, L. Regional allocation of carbon dioxide abatement in China. China Econ. Rev. 23(3), 552–565 (2012).
Google Scholar
Qi, X. et al. Spatiotemporal drivers of food system GHG emissions in China. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 205, 107580 (2024).
Google Scholar
Lv, Z. & Li, S. How financial development affects CO2 emissions: A spatial econometric analysis. J. Environ. Manag. 277, 111397 (2021).
Google Scholar
Iverson, L. R., Prasad, A. M., Matthews, S. N. & Peters, M. Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. For. Ecol. Manag. 254(3), 390–406 (2008).
Google Scholar
Tobin, J. Estimation of relationships for limited dependent variables. Econ. J. Econ. Soc. 26, 24–36 (1958).
Google Scholar
Zhou, K., Yang, J., Yang, T. & Ding, T. Spatial and temporal evolution characteristics and spillover effects of China’s regional carbon emissions. J. Environ. Manag. 325, 116423 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ren, Y., Fang, C. & Li, G. Spatiotemporal characteristics and influential factors of eco-efficiency in Chinese prefecture-level cities: A spatial panel econometric analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 260, 120787 (2020).
Google Scholar
Qin, Y., Ouyang, C., Gou, Y., Jiang, C. & Li, Z. The characteristics and influencing factors of dissolved methane concentrations in Chongqing’s central urban area in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29(47), 72045–72057 (2022).
Google Scholar
Xing, P. et al. Carbon emission efficiency of 284 cities in China based on machine learning approach: Driving factors and regional heterogeneity. Energy Econ. 129, 107222 (2024).
Google Scholar
Liang, X., Li, J., Guo, G., Li, S. & Gong, Q. Evaluation for water resource system efficiency and influencing factors in western China: A two-stage network DEA-Tobit model. J. Clean. Prod. 328, 129674 (2021).
Google Scholar
Jin, Y., Zhang, K., Li, D., Wang, S. & Liu, W. Analysis of the spatial–temporal evolution and driving factors of carbon emission efficiency in the Yangtze River economic Belt. Ecol. Ind. 165, 112092 (2024).
Google Scholar
Xiao, Y. et al. Spatiotemporal differentiation of carbon emission efficiency and influencing factors: From the perspective of 136 countries. Sci. Total Environ. 879, 163032 (2023).
Google Scholar
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities. Available from: https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/tjbz/gmjjhyfl/202302/P020230213400314380798.pdf (2023).
Zhang, Q., Sun, D., Wang, M. & Yin, C. Analysis of typical energy saving technology in the sewage treatment plant. Energy Procedia 142, 1230–1237 (2017).
Google Scholar
Choi, Y., Zhang, N. & Zhou, P. Efficiency and abatement costs of energy-related CO2 emissions in China: A slacks-based efficiency measure. Appl. Energy 98, 198–208 (2012).
Google Scholar
Fare, R., Grosskopf, S. & Pasurka, C. A. Jr. Environmental production functions and environmental directional distance functions. Energy 32(7), 1055–1066 (2007).
Google Scholar
Tone, K. A slacks-based measure of efficiency in data envelopment analysis. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 130(3), 498–509 (2001).
Google Scholar
Zhou, P., Ang, B. W. & Poh, K. L. Slacks-based efficiency measures for modeling environmental performance. Ecol. Econ. 60(1), 111–118 (2006).
Google Scholar
Li, M. Decomposing the change of CO2 emissions in China: A distance function approach. Ecol. Econ. 70(1), 77–85 (2010).
Google Scholar
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China (MOHURDC). China Urban and Rural Construction Statistical Yearbook. Available from: https://www.mohurd.gov.cn/gongkai/fdzdgknr/sjfb/tjxx/jstjnj/index.html (2010–2022).
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP). China Environmental Statistics Yearbook. Available from: https://cnki.nbsti.net/CSYDMirror/area/Yearbook/Single/N2023070120?z=D26 (2010–2022).
Ministry of Natural Resources of China (MNRC). China Seawater Utilization Bulletin. Available from: https://gi.mnr.gov.cn/202309/t20230926_2801240.html (2010–2022).
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (MEEC), National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). China Regional Power Grids Carbon Dioxide Emission Factors. Available from: https://www.caep.org.cn/sy/tdftzhyjzx/zxdt/202310/t20231027_1044179.shtml (2023)
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). China Statistical Yearbook of Fixed Assets Investment. Available from: https://cnki.ctbu.edu.cn/CSYDMirror/area/yearbook/single/N2019030174?z=D26 (2011–2023).
Xu, J., Guan, Y., Oldfield, J., Guan, D. & Shan, Y. China carbon emission accounts 2020–2021. Appl. Energy 360, 122837 (2024).
Google Scholar
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of China (MHRSSC). China Labor Statistics Yearbook. Available from: https://cnki.ctbu.edu.cn/CSYDMirror/area/Yearbook/Single/N2024030104?z=D12 (2011–2023).
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). China Statistical Yearbook. Available from: https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/ (2011–2023).
Liu, X., Zhong, S. & Yang, M. Study on the decoupling relationship of energy-related CO2 emissions and economic growth in China: Using the new two-dimensional decoupling model. Ecol. Ind. 143, 109405 (2022).
Google Scholar
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (MEEC). Environmental Protection Tax Law of the People’s Republic of China. Available from: https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/fl/201811/t20181114_673632.shtml (2016).
National Development and Reform Commission. (NDRC). Water-Saving Society Construction ‘13th Five-Year’ plan. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2017-01/22/content_5162277.htm (2017).
Wu, Y. & Xu, B. When will China’s carbon emissions peak? Evidence from judgment criteria and emissions reduction paths. Energy Rep. 8, 8722–8735 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhang, Z., Zuo, Q., Li, D., Wu, Q. & Ma, J. The relationship between resource utilization and high-quality development in the context of carbon neutrality: measurement, assessment and identification. Sustain. Cities Soc. 94, 104551 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ministry of Water Resources of China (MWRC). China Water Resources Bulletin. Available from: http://www.mwr.gov.cn/sj/#tjgb (2021).
Lin, B. & Guan, C. Evaluation and determinants of total unified efficiency of China’s manufacturing sector under the carbon neutrality target. Energy Econ. 119, 106539 (2023).
Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Su, X., Qi, L. & Liu, M. Evaluation of the comprehensive carrying capacity of interprovincial water resources in China and the spatial effect. J. Hydrol. 575, 794–809 (2019).
Google Scholar
Du, W., Li, M. & Wang, Z. The impact of environmental regulation on firms’ energy-environment efficiency: Concurrent discussion of policy tool heterogeneity. Ecol. Ind. 143, 109327 (2022).
Google Scholar
National Development and Reform Commission. (NDRC). National Water Saving Action Plan. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2016-10/31/content_5126615.htm (2016).
National Development and Reform Commission. (NDRC). National Water Saving Action Plan. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2019/content_5419221.htm (2019).
Song, M., Wang, R. & Zeng, X. Water resources utilization efficiency and influence factors under environmental restrictions. J. Clean. Prod. 184, 611–621 (2018).
Google Scholar
Zhang, L. et al. China’s strictest water policy: Reversing water use trends and alleviating water stress. J. Environ. Manag. 345, 118867 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ren, F. R., Liu, X. Y., Ji, L. L., Lou, Z. X. & Yuan, X. The emission reduction effect of industrial wastewater in the pilot city policy of water ecological civilization. Ecol. Ind. 159, 111702 (2024).
Google Scholar
Zhang, P. & Yu, Y. How does regional technological innovation affect energy poverty? The role of industrial structure distortion. Energy 291, 130387 (2024).
Google Scholar
Zhou, Y., Kong, Y., Sha, J. & Wang, H. The role of industrial structure upgrades in eco-efficiency evolution: Spatial correlation and spillover effects. Sci. Total Environ. 687, 1327–1336 (2019).
Google Scholar
Li, X. Z., Chen, Z. J., Fan, X. C. & Cheng, Z. J. Hydropower development situation and prospects in China. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 232–239 (2018).
Google Scholar
Liu, W., Zhan, J., Zhao, F., Wei, X. & Zhang, F. Exploring the coupling relationship between urbanization and energy eco-efficiency: A case study of 281 prefecture-level cities in China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 64, 102563 (2021).
Google Scholar
Li, D., Zuo, Q. & Zhang, Z. A new assessment method of sustainable water resources utilization considering fairness-efficiency-security: a case study of 31 provinces and cities in China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 81, 103839 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhou, X. et al. Assessing integrated water use and wastewater treatment systems in China: A mixed network structure two-stage SBM DEA model. J. Clean. Prod. 185, 533–546 (2018).
Google Scholar
Hassen, S., Gebrehiwot, T. & Arega, T. Determinants of enterprises use of energy efficient technologies: Evidence from urban Ethiopia. Energy Policy 119, 388–395 (2018).
Google Scholar
da Cruz, N. F., Carvalho, P. & Marques, R. C. Disentangling the cost efficiency of jointly provided water and wastewater services. Utilities Policy 24, 70–77 (2013).
Google Scholar
Yang, Z., Shao, S., Li, C. & Yang, L. Alleviating the misallocation of R&D inputs in China’s manufacturing sector: From the perspectives of factor-biased technological innovation and substitution elasticity. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 151, 119878 (2020).
Google Scholar
Yue, W. et al. The potential of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from urban domestic water systems in highly urbanized areas. J. Clean. Prod. 382, 135206 (2023).
Google Scholar
Jin, W., Zhang, H. Q., Liu, S. S. & Zhang, H. B. Technological innovation, environmental regulation, and green total factor efficiency of industrial water resources. J. Clean. Prod. 211, 61–69 (2019).
Google Scholar
Zhou, P. & Ang, B. W. Linear programming models for measuring economy-wide energy efficiency performance. Energy Policy 36(8), 2911–2916 (2008).
Google Scholar
Yin, C., Hsiao, B. & See, K. F. Efficiency analysis of China’s urban water supply utilities using a dynamic multiactivity network DEA model. Struct. Chang. Econ. Dyn. 71, 387–404 (2024).
Google Scholar
Lo Storto, C. Measuring the efficiency of the urban integrated water service by parallel network DEA: The case of Italy. J. Clean. Product. 276, 123170 (2020).
Google Scholar